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Taking
up similarity of meaning and contrasts of phonetic shape, we observe
that every language has in its vocabulary a variety of words, kindred
in meaning but distinct in morphemic composition, phonemic shape and
usage, ensuring the expression of most delicate shades of thought,
feeling and imagination. The more developed the language, the richer
the diversity and therefore the greater the possibilities of lexical
choice enhancing the effectiveness and precision of speech.

Thus,
synonyms are words only similar but not identical in meaning. This
definition is correct but vague. E. g. horse and animal are
also semantically similar but not synonymous. The basis
of a synonymic opposition is
formed by the first of the denotational component. It will be
remembered that the term oppositionmeans
the relationship of partial difference between two partially similar
elements of a language. A common denotational component forms the
basis of the opposition in synonymic group. All the other components
can vary and thus form the distinctive features of the synonymic
oppositions.

Synonyms can
therefore be defined in terms of linguistics as two or more words of
the same language, belonging to the same part of speech and
possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational
meanings, interchangeable, at least in some contexts without any
considerable alteration in denotational meaning, but differing in
morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning,
connotations, style, valency and idiomatic use. Additional
characteristics of style, emotional colouring and valency peculiar to
one of the elements in a synonymic group may be absent in one or all
of the others.

To
have something tangible to work upon it is convenient to compare some
synonyms within their group, so as to make obvious the reasons for
the definition. The verbs experience,
undergo, sustain and suffer,
for example, come together, because all four render the notion of
experiencing something. The verb and the noun experience indicate
actual living through something and coming to know it first-hand
rather than from hearsay. Undergo applies
chiefly to what someone or something bears or is subjected to, as in
to undergo an operation, to undergo changes. Compare also the
following example from L.P. Smith: The
French language has undergone considerable
and more recent changes since the date when the Normans brought it
into England. In
the above example the verbundergo can
be replaced by its synonyms suffer or experience without
any change of the sentence meaning. The difference is neutralised.

Synonyms,
then, are interchangeable under certain conditions specific to each
group.

A
further illustration will be supplied by a group of synonymous
nouns: hope,
expectation, anticipation.
They are considered to be synonymous, because they all three
mean ‘having
something in mind which is likely to happen’.
They are, however, much less interchangeable than the previous group
because of more strongly pronounced difference in shades of meaning.

Taking
into consideration the corresponding series of synonymous verbs and
verbal set expressions: hope,
anticipate, expect, look forward to,
we shall see that separate words may be compared to whole set
expressions. Look
forward to
is also worthy of note, because it forms a definitely colloquial
counterpart to the rest. It can easily be shown, on the evidence of
examples, that each synonymic group comprises a dominant element.
This synonymic
dominant is
the most general term of its kind potentially containing the specific
features rendered by all the other members of the group, as, for
instance, undergo and hope in
the above.

The
synonymic dominant should not be confused with a generic
term or
a hyperonym.
A generic term is relative. It serves as the name for the notion of
the genus as distinguished from the names of the species — hyponyms.
For instance, animal is
a generic term as compared to the specific names wolf,
dog ormouse (which
are called equonyms). Dog,
in its turn, may serve as a generic term for different breeds such
as bull-dog,
collie, poodle, etc.

Synonyms
possess one or more identical or nearly identical meanings. To
realise the significance of this, one must bear in mind that the
majority of frequent words are polysemantic, and that it is precisely
the frequent words that have many synonyms. The result is that one
and the same word may belong in its various meanings to several
different synonymic groups.

A
fresh metaphor — fresh : : original : :
novel : : striking.

To
begin a fresh paragraph — fresh : : another : :
different : : new.

Fresh
air — fresh : : pure : : invigorating.

A
freshman — fresh : : inexperienced : :
green : : raw.

To
be fresh with sb — fresh : : impertinent : :
rude.

Synonyms
may also differ in emotional colouring which may be present in one
element of the group and absent in all or some of the
others. Lonely as
compared with alone is
emotional. Both words denote being apart from others,
but lonely besides
the general meaning implies longing for company, feeling sad because
of the lack of sympathy and companionship. Alone does
not necessarily suggest any sadness at being by oneself.

If
the difference in the meaning of synonyms concerns the notion or the
emotion expressed, as was the case in the groups discussed above, the
synonyms are classed as ideоgraphiс
synonyms,
and the opposition created in contrasting them may be called
an ideographic
opposition.

In
a stylistic opposition of synonyms the basis of comparison is again
the denotational meaning, and the distinctive feature is the presence
or absence of a stylistic colouring which may also be accompanied by
a difference in emotional colouring. The general effect of poetic or
learned synonyms when used in prose or in everyday speech is that of
creating an elevated tone. The study of synonyms is a borderline
province between semantics and stylistics on the one hand and
semantics and phraseology on the other because of the synonymic
collocations serving as a means of emphasis.

Synonymic
pairs like wear and tear, pick and choose are
very numerous in modern English phraseology and often used both in
everyday speech and in literature. They show all the typical features
of idiomatic phrases that ensure their memorableness such as rhythm,
alliteration, rhyme and the use of archaic words seldom occurring
elsewhere. In a great number of cases the semantic difference between
two or more synonyms is supported by the difference in valency. The
difference in distribution may be syntactical, morphological,
lexical, and surely deserves more attention than has been so far
given to it. It is, for instance, known that bare in reference to
persons is used only predicatively, while naked occurs both
predicatively and attributively. The distinction between words
similar in meaning are often very fine and elusive, so that some
special instruction on the use of synonyms is necessary even for
native speakers.

The
study of synonyms is especially indispensable for those who learn
English as a foreign language because what is the right word in one
situation will be wrong in many other, apparently similar, contexts.

Contextual or context-dependent
synonyms are
similar in meaning only under some specific distributional
conditions. It may happen that the difference between the meanings of
two words is contextually neutralised. E. g. buy and get would
not generally be taken as synonymous, but they are synonyms in the
following examples offered by J. Lyons: I’ll
go to the shop and buy some bread : : I’ll go to the shop
and get some bread.

There
are some other distinctions to be made with respect to different
kinds of semantic similarity. Some authors, for instance, class
groups like ask : :
beg : : implore; like : : love : :
adore or gift : : talent : : genius as
synonymous, calling them relative
synonyms.
This attitude is open to discussion. In fact the difference in
denotative meaning is unmistakable: the words name different notions,
not various degrees of the same notion, and cannot substitute one
another. An
entirely different type of opposition is involved.

Total
synonymy,
i.e. synonymy where the members of a synonymic group can replace each
other in any given context, without the slightest alteration in
denotative or emotional meaning and connotations, is a rare
occurrence. Examples of this type can be found in special literature
among technical terms peculiar to this or that branch of knowledge.
Thus, in linguistics the terms noun and substantive; functional
affix, flection and inflection are
identical in meaning. What is not generally realised, however, is
that terms are a peculiar type of words totally devoid of
connotations or emotional colouring, and that their stylistic
characterisation does not vary. That is why this is a very special
kind of synonymy: neither ideographic nor stylistic oppositions are
possible here. As to the distributional opposition, it is less
marked, because the great majority of terms are nouns. Their
interchangeability is also in a way deceptive. Every writer has to
make up his mind right from the start as to which of the possible
synonyms he prefers, and stick to it throughout his text to avoid
ambiguity. Thus, the interchangeability is, as it were, theoretical
and cannot be materialised in an actual text.

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